Dojo Darelir, the School of Xenograg the Sorcerer

A journey to the depths of the mind involves great personal risks because we may not be able to endure what we find there. That is why all religions have insisted that the mystical journey can only be undertaken under the guidance of an expert. The master monitors the experience, guides the novice past the perilous places, and makes sure he is not exceeding his strength. All mystics stress the need for intelligence and mental stability. Zen masters say that it is useless for a neurotic person to seek a cure in meditation, for that will only make him sicker. Jewish mystics also had to be married to insure that he was in good sexual health.

— Karen Armstrong, A History Of God, p. 213

Little distinction was made between science and magic. They have at least one goal in common: control of the natural world. Magic makes use of observation, systems of classification, even experimentation. But while magic is just as interested in practical results as science is, it is much less interested in discovering and testing causes. It is far more tolerant of failure, partly because its aims are far more grandiose. An alchemist following a recipe for making gold would not complain of a thousand failures if he had one success; a chemist following a recipe for making aspirin demands success each time.

— Richard Smith, Prelude to Science, p. 16

Who was included in the ancient elite? Its members and size varied, of course, from place to place and time to time, but it always included government officials, priests, and army officers. In the great cities of the Hellenistic empires, wealthy merchants and businessmen were marginal members of the ruling class, or hoped to be. They were literate, rich, and powerful, and generally were accepted into the elite. The most important group within the ruling class was the landlords, whose role as suppliers of food was essential. In the ancient Near East not much was needed in the way of shelter or clothing; with a secure food supply the land could support a large population. Some of the subjects of the pharoahs might live miserably but they survived as long as the food supply was maintained. Landlords were essential in preindustrial society, and as the dominant group within the elite they set the tone of the ruling class.

— Norman F. Cantor, The Civilization of the Middle Ages, p. 8

Emphasis mine.

There are nine types of generals:

Those who guide with virtue, who treat all equally with courtesy, who know when the troops are cold and hungry, and who notice when they are weary and pained, are called humanistic generals.

Those who do not try to avoid any task, who are not influenced by profit, who would die with honor before living in disgrace, are called dutiful generals.

Those who are not arrogant because of their high status, who do not make much of their victories, who are wise but can humble themselves, who are strong but can be tolerant, are called courteous generals.

Those whose extraordinary shifts are unfathomable, whose movements and responses are multifaceted, who turn disaster into fortune and seize victory from the jaws of danger, are called clever generals.

Those who give rich rewards for going ahead and have strict penalties for retreating, whose rewards are given right away and whose penalties are the same for all ranks, even the highest, are called trustworthy generals.

Those who go on foot or on a war-horse, with the mettle to take on a hundred men, who are skilled in the use of close-range weapons, swords, and spears, are called infantry generals.

Those who face the dizzying heights and cross the dangerous defiles, who can shoot at a gallop as if in flight, who are in the vanguard when advancing and in the rear guard when withdrawing, are called cavalry generals.

Those whose mettle makes the armies tremble and whose determination makes light of powerful enemies, who are hesitant to engage in petty fights while courageous in the midst of major battles, are called fierce generals.

Those who consider themselves lacking when they see the wise, who go along with good advice like following a current, who are magnanimous yet able to be firm, who are uncomplicated yet have many strategies, are called great generals.

— Thomas Cleary (translator and editor), Mastering the Art of War, pp. 40-41

The feudal system of the Parthians had a Scythian as well as an Achaemenid background, and roughly resembled feudalism as developed in Europe during the “Dark Ages.” Society was headed by seven powerful clans. This upper stratum supported a petty aristocracy of varied socio-economic status who, together with their retainers, enjoyed status well above the peasants and serfs who were native Persians. Loyalty was strongest between the great clan leaders and their small vassals. The king, as a member of one of the clans, could usually command complete loyalty from his own clan and its vassals, less from other Parthians.

— Peter Wilcox and Angus McBride, Rome’s Enemies 3, p. 6